Shia Islam (
Arabic:
شيعة,
Shīʿah,
Persian:
شیعی;
pronounced /ˈʃɪə/) is the second largest denomination of
Islam, after
Sunni Islam. The followers of Shia Islam are called
Shi'ites or
Shias. "Shia" is the short form of the historic phrase
Shīʻatu ʻAlī (
شيعة علي), meaning "followers of
Ali", "faction of Ali", or "party of Ali"
[1][2][3][4][5]
Like other schools of thought in Islam, Shia Islam is based on the teachings of the Islamic holy book, the
Qurʻān and the message of the final
prophet of Islam,
[6] Muhammad.
[7] In contrast to other schools of thought, Shias believe that only the Almighty has the right to chose his representative to safeguard Islam, Quran and Shariah. This means that God's representatives like Prophets and Imams can not be elected by common Muslims. That is why, Shias disown the election and selection of Abu-Bakr, Omar and Usman by the people, to represent Islam and Quran. They also do not consider Ali as the fourth Caliph as the process occurred through voting system. Shias believe that Muhammad's family, the
Ahl al-Bayt ("the People of the House"), and certain individuals among his descendants, who are known as infallible
Imams, have special spiritual and political authority over the community and they have got this authority since God gave it to them just the same way God chose Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, David and others.
[6][8] Shia Muslims further believe that
Ali, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, was the first of twelve Imams and was the
rightful successor to Muhammad
[9] and thus reject the legitimacy of the first three
caliphs.
[9][10] Hussein is notable in all branches of Shia Islam as they all agree that he is the true imam and caliph.
[11]
Shias regard Ali as the second most important figure after Prophet Muhammad. According to them, Muhammad suggested on various occasions during his lifetime that Ali should be the leader of Muslims after his demise. According to this view, Ali as the successor of Muhammad not only ruled over the community in justice, but also interpreted the
Sharia Law and its
esoteric meaning. Hence he was regarded as being free from error and sin (
infallible), and appointed by God by divine decree (
Nass) to be the first
Imam.
[12] Ali is known as "perfect man" (
al-insan al-kamil) similar to Muhammad according to Shia viewpoint.
[13] As a result, Shias favor Hadiths attributed to Muhammad and
Imāms, and credited to the Prophet's family and close associates, in contrast to the Sunni traditions where the
sunnah is largely narrated by
companions.
[14][15] Thus hadith interpretation and differences are the main distinction of the Shias.
[16]
[edit] Doctrine
The position of Ali is supported by numerous
Hadith, including
Hadith of the pond of Khumm,
Hadith of the two weighty things,
Hadith of the pen and paper,
Hadith of the invitation of the close families, and
Hadith of the Twelve Successors. In particular, the
Hadith of the Cloak is often quoted to illustrate Muhammad's feeling towards Ali and his family by both Sunni and Shia scholars. Therefore, the Shi'a believe that the
Family of the Prophet's hadiths are predominant over the others sources.
Although there were several Shia branches through history, nowadays Shi'a Islam is divided into three main branches.
[17] The largest Shia sect in the early 21st century is the Ithnā ʿAshariyyah,
[18] commonly referred to in English as the
Twelvers, while smaller branches include the
Ismaili and
Zaidi, who dispute the Twelver lineage of Imams and beliefs.
[19] Twelvers constitute the majority of the population in
Iran,
[20] Azerbaijan,
[1] Bahrain,
[21] and
Iraq.
Zaidiyyah constitute a considerable portion of
Yemen. Other countries with a significant proportion of Shia are
Syria,
Lebanon,
Kuwait,
Pakistan,
India,
Afghanistan,
Saudi Arabia, south
Turkey.
The Shia Islamic faith is vast and inclusive of many different groups.
[1] Shia theological beliefs, and religious practise such as prayers slightly differ from the Sunnis. While all Muslims pray 5 times daily, Shi'as have the option of always combining Dhuhr with Asr and Maghrib with Isha, as there are 3 distinct times mentioned in the Qur'an. The Sunnis tend to combine only under certain circumstances.
[22][23] Shi'a Islam embodies a completely independent system of religious interpretation and political authority in the Muslim world.
[24][25] The Shi'a identity emerged during the lifetime of Muhammad,
[26] and
Shia theology was formulated in the 2nd century AH, or after Hijra (8th century CE).
[27] The first Shi'a governments and societies were established by the end of the 3rd century AH/9th century CE. The 4th century AH /10th century CE has been referred by Louis Massignon 'the Shiite Ismaili century in the history of Islam'.
[28]
Whereas Sunnis believe the
Mahdi will appear sometime in the future, Shias believe the Mahdi was already on earth, is currently the "hidden imam" who works through mujtahids to interpret Qur'an; and will return at the end of time.
[29]
Beliefs
Succession of Ali
The Investiture of Ali at Ghadir Khumm (
MS Arab 161, fol. 162r, AD 1309/8
Ilkhanid manuscript illustration)
Muslims believe that just as a prophet is appointed by God alone, only God has the prerogative to appoint the successor to his prophet. They believe that God chose
'Alī to be the successor, infallible and divinely chosen. Thus they say that
Muhammad, before his death, appointed Ali as his successor.
Ali was Muhammad's first cousin and closest living male relative, as well as his son-in-law, having married his daughter Fatimah.
[1][30][31] 'Ali would eventually become the fourth Muslim caliph.
[32]
Shi'a Muslims believe that after the last pilgrimage, Muhammad ordered the gathering of Muslims at the pond of Khumm and it was there that Muhammad nominated Ali to be his successor.The
Hadith of the pond of Khumm (
Arabic:
غدير خم) refers to the saying (i.e.
Hadith) about a historical event of appointment, crucial to Islamic history. This event took place on 18th of
Dhu al-Hijjah of 10 AH in the
Islamic calendar (March 10, 632 AD) at a place called
Ghadir Khumm, which is located near the city of al-Juhfah,
Saudi Arabia.
[33] Shi'a Muslims believe it to be an appointment of
Ali by
Muhammad as his successor, while
Sunni Muslims believe it to be a simple defense of Ali in the face of unjust criticism.
[30]
Shi'a Muslims further believe the wordings of sermon delivered by
Muhammad was as follows;
"Oh people! Reflect on the Quran and comprehend its verses. Look into its clear verses and do not follow its ambiguous parts, for by Allah, none shall be able to explain to you its warnings and its mysteries, nor shall anyone clarify its interpretation, other than the one that I have grasped his hand, brought up beside myself, [and lifted his arm,] the one about whom I inform you that whomever I am his master (Mawla), this Ali is his master (Mawla); and he is Ali Ibn Abi Talib, my brother, the executor of my will (Wasiyyi), whose appointment as your guardian and leader has been sent down to me from Allah, the mighty and the majestic."
[34]
When Muhammad died, 'Ali and Muhammad's closest relatives made the funeral arrangements. While they were preparing his body, Abu Bakr, 'Umar, and Abu 'Ubayda met with the leaders of Medina and elected Abu Bakr as khalifa ("caliph"). 'Ali and his family were dismayed, but accepted the appointment for the sake of unity in the early Muslim community.
[30]
It was not until the murder of the third khalifa, 'Uthman, that the Muslims in Medina invited 'Ali to become the fourth khalifa.
[30]
While 'Ali was caliph, his capital was in
Kufah, in current day Iraq.
[35]
'Ali's rule over the early Muslim community was often contested, to the extent that wars were waged against him. As a result, he had to struggle to maintain his power against the groups who broke away after giving him allegiance, or those who wished to take his position. After Ali's murder in 661 CE, his main rival
Mu'awiya claimed the caliphate.
[36] While the rebels who accused 'Uthman of nepotism affirmed 'Ali's khilafa, they later turned against him and fought him.
[30]
'Ali ruled from 656 CE to 661 CE,
[30] when he was assassinated.
[37] while prostrating (sujud) in prayer. Shī'as add "و عليٌ وليُّ الله" "and
Ali is the
wali (chosen one) of God" (
wa-'Aliyun waliyu l-Lāh), to the
adhan and
shahada but this is not obligatory.
[38] Ali is regarded as the foremost authority on the
Tafsir and
hadith.
[39]
IMAM HUSSAIN (A.S)
The Shia regard
Hussein as an Imam (which is considered as a divine spiritual leader appointed by God) and a
martyr. He is believed to be the third of the Imams from the Ahl al-Bayt which are supposed to succeed Muhammad and that he set out on his path in order to save the religion of Islam and the Islamic nation from annihilation at the hands of Yazid. He is notable for being the only imam following Ali which all Shia branches agree on.
[40]
Imamate of the Ahl al-Bayt
Most of the early Shia as well as Zaydis differed only marginally from mainstream Sunnis in their views on political leadership, but it is possible in this sect to see a refinement of Shīa doctrine. Early Sunnis traditionally held that the political leader must come from the tribe of Muhammad—namely, the
Quraysh. The Zaydīs narrowed the political claims of the Ali's supporters, claiming that not just any descendant of 'Alī would be eligible to lead the Muslim community (ummah) but only those males directly descended from Muḥammad through the union of 'Alī and Fāṭimah. But during the Abbasid revolts, other Shīa, who came to be known as imāmiyyah (followers of the Imams), followed the theological school of
Ja'far al-Sadiq. They asserted a more exalted religious role for Imams and insisted that, at any given time, whether in power or not, a single male descendant of 'Alī and Fāṭimah was the divinely appointed Imam and the sole authority, in his time, on all matters of faith and law. To those Shīʿites, love of the imams and of their persecuted cause became as important as belief in God's oneness and the mission of Muhammad.
[18]
Later most of Shia, including Twelver and Ismaili, became Imami. Imamis Shia believe that Imams are the spiritual and political successors to
Muhammad.
[18] Imams are human individual who not only rule over the community with justice, but also are able to keep and interpret the
Divine Law and its
esoteric meaning. Muhammad and Imams'
words and deeds are a guide and model for the community to follow; as a result, they must be free from error and sin, and must be chosen by divine decree, or
nass, through Muhammad.
[41][42]
According to this view, there is always an Imam of the Age, who is the divinely appointed authority on all matters of faith and law in the Muslim community.
'Alī was the first Imam of this line, the rightful successor to Muhammad, followed by male descendants of Muhammad through his daughter
Fatimah Zahra.
[18]
Kalema at Qiblah of the Imam Mustansir Mosque in
Cairo,
Egypt with phrase "Ali-un-Waliullah"
This difference between following either the
Ahl al-Bayt (Muhammad's family and descendants) or the
Caliph Abu Bakr has shaped Shia and non-Shia views on some of the Qur'an, the
Hadith (narrations from Muhammad) and other areas of Islam. For instance, the collection of Hadith venerated by Shia Muslims is centered on narrations by members of the Ahl al-Bayt and their supporters, while some Hadith by narrators not belonging to or supporting the Ahl al-Bayt are not included (those of
Abu Huraira, for example). According to Sunnis, Ali was the fourth successor to Abu Bakr while Shias maintain that Ali was the first divinely sanctioned "Imam," or successor of Muhammad. The seminal event in Shia history is the martyrdom in 680 CE at the
Battle of Karbala of Ali's son
Hussein, who led a non-allegiance movement against the defiant caliph (71 of Hussein's followers were killed as well). Hussein came to symbolize resistance to tyranny.
It is believed in Twelver and
Ismaili Shī'ah Islam that
'aql, divine wisdom, was the source of the souls of the prophets and imams and gave them esoteric knowledge called
ḥikmah and that their sufferings were a means of divine grace to their devotees.
[8][18][43] Although the imam was not the recipient of a
divine revelation, he had a close relationship with God, through which God guides him, and the Imam in turn guides the people.
Imamate, or belief in the divine guide is a fundamental belief in the Twelver and Ismaili Shī'ī branches and is based on the concept that God would not leave humanity without access to divine guidance.
[44]
In Shia Islam, there is a third phrase of the
Kalema, 'Ali-un-waliullah,' which depicts the importance of the Imamate.
[45]
- The fundamental first phrase
"La- ilaha-ill-al-lah" is the foundation stone of Islam, the belief that "there is no god but Allah". This is the confession of "Tauhid".
- The second phrase,
"Mohammad-ur –rasul-al-lah," says "Mohammad is Allah's "Rasul", "Nabi", the Messenger, Apostle". This is the acceptance of the "Nabuwat," or prophethood, of Mohammad.
- According to Shia Islam, Mohammad declared Ali bin Abu Talib as his successor and said that "for whoever I am a 'Moula' of them, Ali is his 'Moula'". Hence, they say the Kalema required further confession of the third phrase
"Ali-un- wali-ul-lah," meaning "Ali is his (Mohammad's) "Wali", its care taker, stressing the need that for continuation of faith there is a requirement of Wali, the Imams which are the real care-takers of Islam.
The
Kalema-tut-shahadat includes three Islamic teachings,
"Tauhid", "Nabuwat" and "Imamate". In this belief, the Nabi, Mohammad and the Imams are so linked together that these cannot be viewed separately. One leads to the other and finally to God, "Allah", the Almighty.
In one of the Qiblah of Imam Mustansir of the Fatemi era, the masjid of Qahira (Mosque of Ahmed-ibn-tulun), was engraved his name and the phrase "kalema‐tut‐sahadat" (see image), giving specific importance to the third phrase
Ali –un‐ wali ‐ ul –lah' hence to the Imamate.
Ismah
Ismah is the concept of
infallibility or "divinely bestowed freedom from error and sin" in
Islam.
[46] Muslims believe that
Muhammad and other prophets in Islam possessed 'iṣmah.
Twelver and
Ismaili Shī'ah Muslims also attribute the quality to
Imāms as well as to
Fatima Zahra, daughter of
Muhammad, in contrast to the
Zaidi, who do not attribute 'ismah to the Imāms.
According to Shī'ah theologians, infallibility is considered a rational necessary precondition for spiritual and religious guidance. They argue that since
God has commanded absolute obedience from these figures they must only order that which is right. The state of infallibility is based on the Shī'ah
interpretation of the
verse of purification.
[Qur'an 33:33][47] Thus they are, the most pure ones, the only immaculate ones preserved from, and immune to, all uncleanness.
[48] It does not mean that supernatural powers prevent them from committing a sin, but it is due to the fact that they have an absolute belief in God so that they find themselves in the presence of God.
[49] They also have a complete knowledge of God's will. They are in possession of all knowledge brought by the
angels to the prophets (
nabi) and the messengers (
Rasul). Their knowledge encompasses the totality of all times. They thus act without fault in religious matters.
[50]
[edit] Intercession
Tawassul (
Arabic:
توسل) is an Islamic religious practice in which a
Muslim seeks nearness to
God. A rough translation would be: "To draw near to what one seeks after and to approach that which one desires." The exact definition and method of tawassul is a matter of some dispute within the Muslim community.
Muslims who practice tawassul point to the
Qur'an,
Islam's holy book, as the origin of the practice. Many Muslims believe it is a commandment upon them to "draw near" to God.
[51] Amongst
Sufi and
Barelwi Muslims within
Sunni Islam, as well as
Twelver Shi'a Muslims, it refers to the act of supplicating to
God through a
prophet,
imam or
Sufi saint, whether dead or alive.
[52]
Clergy
Main article:
Shia clergy[edit] The Occultation
The Occultation in
Shi'a Islam refers to a belief that the messianic figure, the
Mahdi, is an Imam who has disappeared and will one day return alongside
Jesus Christ and fill the world with justice. Some Shi'a, such as the
Zaidi and
Nizari Ismaili, do not believe in the idea of the Occultation. The groups which do believe in it differ upon which lineage of the Imamate is valid, and therefore which individual has gone into occultation. They believe there are many signs that will indicate the time of his return.
[edit] History
[edit] Family Tree of 6 Islamic Nabi and Shia Islam
Origin of Shias
According to
Encyclopædia Britannica and others,
[53] Shias are believed to have started as a
political party and developed into a religious movement, influencing Sunnis and produced a number of important sects.
Early in the history of Islam, the Shīʿites were a political faction (Arabic shīʿat ʿAlī, "party of ʿAlī") that supported the power of ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib (the fourth caliph [khalīfah,
successor of Muhammad]) and, later, of his descendants.
[18]
Hossein Nasr disagrees with this as he writes:
Shi'ism was not brought into existence only by the question of the political succession to Muhammad as so many Western works claim (although this question was of course of great importance). The problem of political succession may be said to be the element that crystallized the Shi'ites into a distinct group, and political suppression in later periods, especially the martyrdom of Imam Husayn-upon whom be peace-only accentuated this tendency of the Shi'ites to see themselves as a separate community within the Islamic world. The principal cause of the coming into being of Shi'ism, however, lies in the fact that this possibility existed within the Islamic revelation itself and so had to be realized. Inasmuch as there were exoteric [Zaheri] and esoteric [Bateni] interpretations from the very beginning, from which developed the schools (madhhab) of the Sharia and Sufism in the Sunni world, there also had to be an interpretation of Islam, which would combine these elements in a single whole. This possibility was realized in Shi'ism, for which the Imam is the person in whom these two aspects of traditional authority are united and in whom the religious life is marked by a sense of tragedy and martyrdom... Hence the question which arose was not so much who should be the successor of Muhammad as what the function and qualifications of such a person would be.[54]
Disagreement broke out over who would succeed Muhammad as leader of the Muslim community. While the
Sunnis followed the
companions of
Muhammad, the Shias followed
Ali. This dispute eventually led to the
First Fitna, which was the first major
civil war within the
Islamic Caliphate. The Fitna began as a series of revolts fought against the first Imam
Ali ibn Abi Talib, caused by the assassination of his political predecessor,
Uthman Ibn Affan. It lasted for the entirety of Ali's reign, and its end is marked by
Muawiyah's assumption of the caliphate (founding the
Umayyad dynasty), and the subsequent recorded
peace treaty between him and
Hassan ibn Ali.
The
Second Fitna was when the first
Umayyad Caliph
Muawiya I was succeeded upon his death in 680 by his son,
Yazid I. Yazid's first opposition came from supporters of
Husayn ibn Ali, who was the grandson of the Prophet
Muhammad and the son of the former Caliph
Ali ibn Abi Talib, who had been assassinated. Husayn and many of his closest supporters were killed by Yazid's troops at the
Battle of Karbala. This battle is often cited as the definitive break between the Shi'a and
Sunni sects of Islam, and until this day it has been commemorated each year by Shi'a Muslims on the
Day of Ashura.
[edit] Fatamid rule (909–1171)
One of the earliest nations where the rulers were Shia (Ismaili) Muslims was the Fatamid Caliphate which controlled much of North Africa, the
Levant, and parts of
Arabia.
[edit] Būyid rule
Main article:
Buyid_dynastyThe founders of the Būyid confederation were
'Alī ibn Būyah and his two younger brothers,
al-Hassan and
Aḥmad.
[edit] Safavid rule (1501–1736)
A major turning point in Shia history was the
Safavid dynasty in Persia.
- The ending of the relative mutual tolerance between Sunnis and Shiis that existed from the time of the Mongol conquests onwards and the resurgence of antagonism between the two groups.
- The beginning of the emergence of an independent body of ulama capable of taking a political stand different from the policies of the state.
- The growth in importance of Iranian centers of religious learning and change from Twelver Shiism being a predominantly Arab phenomenon.[55]
- The growth of the Akhbari School which preached that only the Qur'an, aḥadīth in deriving verdicts, rejected the use of reasoning.
With the fall of the Safavids, the state in Persia – including the state system of courts with government-appointed judges (
qadis) – became much weaker, This gave the Sharia courts of mujtahids an opportunity to fill in the slack and enabled "the
ulama to assert their judicial authority." The Usuli School also increased in strength at this time.
[56]
[edit] Akhbaris versus Usūlīs
After
Muhammad, Ali is credited as the first young male to accept Islam
The
Akhbari movement "crystalized" as a "separate movement" with the writings of
Muhammad Amin al-Astarabadi (died 1627 AD) It rejected the use of reasoning in deriving verdicts, and believed only the
Qur'an,
aḥadīth, (prophetic sayings and recorded opinions of the
Imāms) and consensus should be used as sources to derive verdicts (fatwas). Unlike Usūlīs, Akhbārīs did and do not follow
marja's who practice
ijtihad.
[57]
It achieved its greatest influence in the late
Safavid and early post-Safavid era when it dominated Twelver Shi'a Islam.
[58] However, shortly thereafter
Muhammad Baqir Behbahani (died 1792), along with other Usuli
mujtahids, crushed the Akhbari movement.
[59] and it remains now in the Shia Muslim world only as a small minority. One result of the resolution of this conflict was the rise in importance of the concept of
ijtihad and the position of the
mujtahid (as opposed to other
ulema) in the 18th and early 19th centuries. It was from this time that the division of the Shia world into mujtahid (those who could follow their own independent judgment) and
muqallid (those who had to follow the rulings of a mujtahid) took place. According to author Moojan Momen, "up to the middle of the 19th century there were very few mujtahids (three or four) anywhere at any one time," but "several hundred existed by the end of the 19th century."
[60]
[edit] Majlisi
"One of the most powerful and influential Shi'i ulama of all time" also preached during this era. Working during the Safavid era,
Muhammad Baqir Majlisi, worked diligently to rid Twelver Shi'ism of the influence of
Sufiism (which had been closely linked to Shi'ism) and philosophy, and propagate strict adherence to obedience of Islamic law (
sharia).
[61] Majlisi promoted specifically Shi'i rituals such as mourning for Imam
Husayn ibn Ali and visitation (
ziyarat) of the tombs of the Imams and Imamzadas; and stressed "the concept of the Imams as mediators and intercessors for man with God."
[62]
[edit] Demographics
The largest Shia majority countries are Iraq and Iran, both coloured in dark red.
Shia majority regions are coloured dark red and Zaydi pink
It is variously estimated that 10–20%
[63][64][65][66] of the
world's Muslims are Shi'a, while the remaining larger percentage follow
Sunni Islam.
"...Shias are about 10-to-15 percent of the entire Muslim world. We don't have accurate statistics because in much of the Middle East it is not convenient to have them, for ruling regimes in particular. But the estimates are that they are about 10-to-15 percent of the Muslim world, which puts them somewhere between 165-to-190 million people....The overwhelming majority of that population lives between Pakistan and Lebanon. Iran always had been a Shia country, the largest one, with about 60 million population. Pakistan is the second-largest Shia country in the world, with about 30 million population. And, potentially, there are as many Shias in India as there are in Iraq.[67][68]
They may number up to 200 million as of 2009.
[64] The Shia majority countries are Iran, Iraq, Azerbaijan and Bahrain.
[69] They also constitute 36.3% of entire local population and 38.6% of local
Muslim population of
Middle East.
[70]
Shi'a Muslims constitute over 35% of the population in
Lebanon,
[71] over 45% of the population in
Yemen,
[72] 20-40% of the population in
Kuwait[64][73], over 20% in
Turkey,
[64][74] 10–20% of the population in
Pakistan,
[64] and 10-19% of
Afghanistan's population.
[75][76]
Nations with populations of more than one million Shi'as include (in descending order): Iran, Pakistan, India, Iraq, Turkey, Yemen, Azerbaijan, Afghanistan, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Nigeria, Lebanon, and Tanzania.
[64][65]
Saudi Arabia hosts a number of distinct Shia communities, including the
Twelver Baharna in the
Eastern Province, the
Nakhawila of
Medina, and the
Ismaili Sulaymani and
Zaidiyyah of
Najran. Estimations put the Shiite number of citizen at 2-4 million accounting for roughly 15% of the local population.
[77]
Significant Shi'a communities exist on the coastal regions of
West Sumatra and
Aceh in
Indonesia (see
Tabuik). The Shi'a presence is negligible elsewhere in
Southeast Asia, where Muslims are predominantly
Shafi'i Sunnis.
A significant syncretic Shi'a minority is present in
Nigeria, centered around the state of
Kano (see
Shia in Nigeria). East Africa holds several populations of Ismaili Shia, primarily descendants of immigrants from South Asia during the colonial period, such as the
Khoja.
According to Shi'a Muslims, one of the lingering problems in estimating Shi'a population is that unless Shi'a form a significant minority in a Muslim country, the entire population is often listed as Sunni. The reverse, however, has not held true, which may contribute to imprecise estimates of the size of each sect. For example, the 1926 rise of the
House of Saud in Arabia brought official discrimination against Shi'a.
[78]
List of nations with Shia population
Figures indicated in the first three columns below are based on the October 2009 demographic study by the
Pew Research Center report,
Mapping the Global Muslim Population.
[64][65]
Nations with over 100,000 Shi'a[64][65]
| Country | Shi'a population[64][65] | Percent of Muslim population that is Shi'a[64][65] | Percent of global Shi'a population[64][65] | Minimum estimate/claim | Maximum estimate/claim |
|---|
| Iran | &6600066,000,000 – 70,000,000 | 90–95 | 37–40 | | |
| Pakistan | &1700017,000,000 – 26,000,000 | 10–15 | 10–15 | | 43,250,000[79] – 57,666,666[80][81] |
| India | &1600016,000,000 – 24,000,000 | 10–15 | &099–14 | | 40,000,000[82] – 50,000,000.[83] |
| Iraq | &1900019,000,000 – 22,000,000 | 65–70 | 11–12 | | |
| Turkey | &070007,000,000 – 11,000,000 | 10–15 | &044–6 | | |
| Yemen | &080008,000,000 – 10,000,000 | 35–40 | &055 | | |
| Azerbaijan | &050005,000,000 – 7,000,000 | 65–75 | &033–4 | | |
| Afghanistan | &030003,000,000 – 4,000,000 | 10–15 | &01<2 | | 15–19% of total population[75] |
| Syria | &030003,000,000 – 4,000,000 | 15–20 | &01<2 | | |
| Saudi Arabia | &020002,000,000 – 4,000,000 | 10–15 | &011–2 | | |
| Nigeria | &03999<4,000,000 | &04<5 | &01<2 | | 5-10 million[84] |
| Lebanon | &010001,000,000 – 2,000,000 | 45 | &00<1 | | |
| Tanzania | &01999<2,000,000 | &09<10 | &00<1 | | |
| Kuwait | &00500500,000 – 700,000 | 20–25 | &00<1 | | 35–40% of total population[73] |
| Germany | &00400400,000 – 600,000 | 10–15 | &00<1 | | |
| Bahrain | &00400400,000 – 500,000 | 65–75 | &00<1 | | |
| Tajikistan | &00400400,000 | &077 | &00<1 | | |
| United Arab Emirates | &00300300,000 – 400,000 | 10 | &00<1 | | |
| United States | &00200200,000 – 400,000 | 10–15 | &00<1 | | |
| Oman | &00100100,000 – 300,000 | &055–10 | &00<1 | | 948,750[85] |
| United Kingdom | &00100100,000 – 300,000 | 10–15 | &00<1 | | |
| Bulgaria | &00100100,000 | 10–15 | &00<1 | | |
| Qatar | &00100100,000 | 10 | &00<1 | | |
Persecution The dispute over the right successor to Muhammad resulted in the formation of two main sects, the Sunni and the Shia. The Sunni, or followers of the way, followed the caliphate and maintained the premise that any devout Muslim could potentially become the successor to Muhammad if accepted by his peers. The Shia, however, maintain that only the person selected by God and
announced by the Prophet could become his successor, thus Ali became the religious authority for the Shia people. Militarily established and holding control over the Umayyad government, many Sunni rulers perceived the Shia as a threat – both to their political and religious authority.
[86]
The Sunni rulers under the Umayyads sought to marginalize the Shia minority and later the
Abbasids turned on their Shia allies and further imprisoned, persecuted, and killed Shias. The persecution of Shias throughout history by Sunni co-religionists has often been characterized by brutal and genocidal acts. Comprising only about 10–15% of the entire Muslim population, to this day, the Shia remain a marginalized community in many Sunni Arab dominant countries without the rights to practice their religion and organize.
[87]
At various times Shi'a groups have faced persecution.
[88][89][90][91][92][93]
In March 2011,
Malaysia government ban Shias a 'deviant' sect to promote their faith to other Muslim, but are free to practise it themselves.
[94]
[edit] Calendar
Sunni, and Twelver and Mustaali Shi'a, celebrate the following annual holidays:
The following holidays are observed by Twelver and Mustaali Shi'a only, unless otherwise noted:
- The Remembrance of Muharram and Ashurah (عاشوراء) for Shia commemorates Imam Husayn ibn Ali's martyrdom. Imam Husayn was grandson of Muhammad, who was killed by Yazid ibn Muawiyah, Ashurah is a day of deep mourning which occurs on the 10th of Muharram. Sunnis also commemorate Ashurah, but give it a different meaning (see Ashurah). On January 19, 2008, 2 million Iraqi Shia pilgrims marched through Karbala city, Iraq to commemorateAshura. 20,000 Iraqi troops and police guarded the event amid tensions due to clashes between Iraqi troops and the population which left 263 people dead (in Basra and Nasiriya).[95]
- Arba'een commemorates the suffering of the women and children of Imam Husayn's household. After Husayn was killed, they were marched over the desert, from Karbala (central Iraq) to Shaam (Damascus, Syria). Many children (some of whom were direct descendants of Muhammad) died of thirst and exposure along the route. Arba'een occurs on the 20th of Safar, 40 days after Ashurah.
- Milad al-Nabi, Muhammad's birth date, is celebrated by Shia on the 17th of Rabi al-Awwal, which coincides with the birth date of the sixth imam, Ja'far al-Sadiq.[citation needed]
- Mid-Sha'ban is the birth date of the 12th and final imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi. It is celebrated by Shi'a Muslims on the 15th of Shaban. Many Shia fast on this day to show gratitude.
- Eid al-Ghadeer celebrates Ghadir Khum, the occasion when Muhammad announced Ali's imamate before a multitude of Muslims. Eid al-Ghadeer is held on the 18th of Dhil-Hijjah.
- Al-Mubahila celebrates a meeting between the household of Muhammad and a Christian deputation from Najran. Al-Mubahila is held on the 24th of Dhil-Hijjah. The Quran refers to this event in Surah Aal-E-Imran Verse No. 61.
[edit] Holy cities
Both Shia and Sunni Muslims share a certain veneration and religious obligations towards certain
shrines and holy sites, such as Mecca (
Masjid al-Haram) and Medina (
Al-Masjid al-Nabawi) but
Imam Ali Mosque and
Imam Husayn Shrine are also highly revered by Shia.
[edit] Branches
A tree depicting the branching of Shi'a Islam
The Shi'a faith throughout its history split over the issue of imamate, with each branch supporting different imams. The largest branch are the
Twelvers, to which over 85% of Shi'a belong. The only other surviving branches are the
Zaidi and
Ismaili. All three groups follow a different line of Imamate.
Twelver Shi'a believe in the lineage of the
Twelve Imams. The Twelver Shi'a faith is predominantly found in
Iran (est. 90%),
Azerbaijan (est. 65%),
Bahrain (est. 70%),
Iraq (est. 60%),
Lebanon (est. 24%),
[96] Kuwait (est. 33%),
Turkey (est. 15%),
Albania (est. 10%),
Pakistan (est. 10–15%) and
Afghanistan (est. 15%).
[97][98] The Zaidi Shi'a are predominantly found in
Yemen (est. 40%).
The
Zaidi dispute the succession of the fifth Twelver Imam,
Muhammad al-Baqir, because he did not stage a revolution against the corrupt government, unlike
Zaid ibn Ali. They do not believe in a direct lineage, but rather that any descendant of
Hasan ibn Ali or
Husayn ibn Ali who stages a revolution against a corrupt government is an imam. The Zaidi are mainly found in
Yemen.
The
Ismaili dispute the succession of the seventh Twelver Imam,
Musa al-Kadhim, believing his older brother
Isma'il ibn Jafar actually succeeded their father
Ja'far al-Sadiq. Ismailis believe that Ja'far al-Ṣādiq thought his son, Ismā'īl ibn Ja'far "al-Mubārak", would be heir to the
Imamate. However, Ismā'īl predeceased his father. Some of the Shī'ah claimed Ismā'īl had not died, but rather gone into
occultation, but the proto-Ismā'īlī group accepted his death and therefore that his eldest son,
Muḥammad ibn Ismā'īl, was now Imām. Muḥammad remained in contact with this "Mubārakiyyah" group, most of whom resided in
Kūfah.
[99] Ismaili form small communities in
Afghanistan,
Pakistan,
Uzbekistan,
India,
Yemen,
China and
Saudi Arabia[100] and have several subbranches.
[edit] Twelver
Twelver Imami Shia Islam or
the Ithnā'ashariyyah' (
الإثنى عشرية) is the largest branch of Shī'ī
Islam. An adherent of Twelver Shī'ism is most commonly referred to as a
Twelver, which is derived from their belief in twelve divinely ordained leaders, known as
The Twelve Imams. Twelvers are representing the largest branch of the Shīa, and the term
Shia Muslim usually refers to Twelver Shia Muslims only.
The Twelvers are also known by other names, each connoting some aspect of the faith.
- "The Shī'ah" is commonly used as a synonym for "Twelvers" since this branch comprises the majority group of Shī'ī Islam.
- Ja'farī refers to Twelvers to the exclusion of the Ismā'īlī and Zaydī ("Fivers"). This term refers to the majority Twelver school of jurisprudence (a minority school, the Akhbarī, also exists). It is attributed to Ja'far aṣ-Ṣādiq, who the Twelvers consider to be their Sixth Imām. The founders of the Sunni Hanafi and Maliki schools of jurisprudence narrated hadith from Ja'far.
- Imāmī is a reference to the Twelver belief in the infallibility of the Imāms. Though the Ismā'īlī also accept the concept of Imāms, this term is used specifically for the Twelvers.
The Twelver faith is predominantly found in
Iran (90%),
Iraq (65%),
Azerbaijan (85%),
Lebanon (35%),
Kuwait (35%),
Turkey (25%),
Saudi Arabia (10–15%),
[100] Bahrain (80%) and forms a large minority in
Pakistan (10–15%) and
Afghanistan (18%).
Pakistan has the second largest Shia Twelver population after
Iran.
Twelvers believe that the descendants of Muḥammad through his daughter
Fatima Zahra and his son-in-law
'Alī are the best source of knowledge about the
Qur'an and Islam, the most trusted carriers and protectors of Muḥammad's
traditions and the most worthy of emulation.
In particular, Twelvers recognize the succession of 'Alī, Muḥammad's cousin, son-in-law and the first man to accept Islam (second only to Muḥammad's wife
Khadījah), the male head of the
Ahl al-Bayt or "people of the [Muhammad's] house" (and the father of Muḥammad's only bloodline) as opposed to that of the
caliphate recognized by
Sunni Muslims. Twelvers also believe that 'Alī was appointed successor by Muḥammad's direct order on many occasions, and that he is therefore the rightful leader of the Muslim faith.
'Alī was the third successor to
Abu Bakr and, for the Shī'ah, the first divinely sanctioned "Imām," or male descendant of Muḥammad. The seminal event in Shī'ah history is the martyrdom in 680 CE of 'Alī's son
Husayn, who led an uprising against the "illegitimate" caliph. For the Shī'ah, Husayn came to symbolize resistance to tyranny.
Regardless of the dispute about the caliphate, Twelvers recognize the religious authority of the
Twelve Imams, also called
Khalīfah Ilāhi.
[edit] The Twelve Imams
The
Twelve Imams are the spiritual and political successors to Muhammad for the Twelvers.
[18] According to the
theology of Twelvers, the successor of Muhammad is an
infallible human individual who not only rules over the community with justice, but also is able to keep and interpret the
Divine Law and its
esoteric meaning. Muhammad and imams'
words and deeds are a guide and model for the community to follow; as a result, they must be free from error and sin, and must be chosen by divine decree, or
nass, through Muhammad.
[42][101] Each Imam was the son of the previous Imam, with the exception of
Husayn ibn Ali, who was the brother of
Hasan ibn Ali.
[18] The twelfth and final Imam is
Muhammad al-Mahdi, who is believed by the Twelvers to be currently alive, and
in occultation.
[44]
- 'Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib (600–661), also known as Amīru l-Mu'minīn "Commander of the Faithful" in Arabic and in Persian as Shāh-e Mardan "King of the Men"
- Ḥasan ibn 'Alī (625–669), also known as Al-Hasan al-Mujtaba
- Ḥusayn ibn 'Alī (626–680), also known as Al-Husayn ash-Shaheed
- 'Alī ibn Ḥusayn (658–713), also known as Ali Zayn-ul-'Abideen
- Muḥammad ibn 'Alī (676–743), also known as Muhammad al-Bāqir
- Ja'far ibn Muḥammad (703–765), also known as Ja'far aṣ-Ṣādiq
- Mūsá ibn Ja'far (745–799), also known as Mūsá al-Kāżim
- 'Alī ibn Mūsá (765–818), also known as Ali ar-Riża
- Muḥammad ibn 'Alī (810–835), also known as Muḥammad al-Jawad and Muḥammad at-Taqi
- 'Alī ibn Muḥammad (827–868), also known as 'Alī al-Ḥādī and 'Alī an-Naqī
- Ḥasan ibn 'Alī (846–874), also known as Hasan al Askari
- Muhammad ibn Ḥasan (869–?), also known as al-Hujjat ibn al-Ḥasan, Mahdī, Imāmu l-Aṣr
[edit] Principles of the Religion (Usūl al-Dīn)
In
Twelver Shi'a Islam, the
Principles of the Religion (
Usūl al-Dīn) are the five main theological beliefs that Shi'a
Muslims must possess. The
Shi'a Roots of Religion are a set of theoretical theological beliefs, in contrast to the ten practices prescribed in the Shi'a
Branches of Religion. It is from these articles that the
Branches of Religion are derived.
All books of
Resalah start with an explicit disclaimer stating that no proof shall be given for any of the points in the
Roots of Religion. The Marja argue that it is permissible to imitate in matters of practical Islam, for example, how one is supposed to do
Salat, without being familiar with evidence and arguments for the conclusions. However, they argue that the matters in the Roots of Religion are much too important to be merely imitated, and it is the responsibility of each individual to make themselves personally familiar with the arguments and evidence for each article of faith.
The five
articles of faith in the
Shi'a Roots of Religion are:
- Tawhīd (Oneness)
- Adl (Justice)
- Nubuwwah (Prophethood)
- Imāmah (Leadership)
- Yawm al Qiyyamah(Ma'ad) (The Day of Resurrection)
[edit] Ancillaries of the Faith (Furū al-Dīn)
According to
Twelver doctrine, what are referred to as pillars by Sunni Islam (which are five in number) are called the practices or secondary principles; there are three additional practices, for a total of eight. The first is
jihad, which is also important to the Sunni, but not considered a pillar. The second is
Commanding what is just (
Arabic:
امر بالمعروف), which calls for every Muslim to live a virtuous life and to encourage others to do the same. The third is
Forbidding what is evil (
Arabic:
النهي عن المنكر), which tells Muslims to refrain from vice and from evil actions and to encourage others to do the same.
[102][103][104] Twelvers have five Principles of the Religion which relates to
Aqidah.
[105]
- Salat (Prayer)
- Sawm (Fast)
- Hajj (Pilgrimage)
- Zakāh (2.5% of savings to the poor)
- Khums (20% of savings of which the first half (Sihmu 'l-Imam) must be given to the Imam of Ahlul-Bayt or his representatives[106][107])
- Jihād (Struggle)
- Amr-Bil-Ma'rūf (Enjoining what is good)
- Nahi-Anil-Munkar (Forbid what is evil)
- Tawallá (To love Muhammad and his Ahl al-Bayt)
- Tabarrā' (To hate, curse and disassociate from the enemies of Muhammad and his Ahl al-Bayt)
[edit] Ja'fari jurisprudence
Ja'fari jurisprudence or
Ja'fari Fiqh is the name of the jurisprudence of the
Twelver Muslims, derived from the name of
Ja'far al-Sadiq, the 6th
Shia Imam.
The Ja'fari Shia consider
Sunnah to be the oral traditions of Muhammad and their implementation and interpretation by the Imams who were all scholars and descendants of Muhammad through his daughter
Fatimah and her husband, the first Imam,
Ali. There are three schools of Ja'fari jurispudence:
Usuli,
Akhbari, and
Shaykhi. The Usuli school is by far the largest of the three. Twelver groups that do not follow Ja'fari jurisprudence include the
Alawi,
Alevi,
Bektashi, and
Ahl-e Haqq.
[edit] Role of religious scholars
Main article:
Shia clergy and
Akhbari Shia
Twelver Muslims believe that the study of
Islamic literature is a continual process, and is necessary for identifying all of
God's laws. Twelver Shia Muslims believe that the process of finding God's laws from the available Islamic literature will facilitate in dealing with any circumstance. They believe that they can interpret the
Qur'an and the Twelver Shi'a traditions with the same authority as their predecessors. This process of ijtihad has provided a means to deal with current issues from an islamic perspective. Generally, the Twelver Shi'a clergy have exerted much more authority in the Twelver Shi'a community than have the Sunni ulema.
Marja (
Arabic:
مرجع), also appearing as
Marja Taqlid (
Arabic:
مرجع تقليد) or
Marja Dini (
Arabic:
مرجع ديني), literally means "Source to Imitate/Follow" or "Religious Reference". It is the label provided to Shia authority, a
Grand Ayatollah with the authority to make legal decisions within the confines of
Islamic law for followers and less-credentialed clerics. After the
Qur'an and the
Prophets and
Imams,
marjas are the highest authority on religious laws in
Usuli Twelver Shia Islam.
Currently,
marjas are accorded the title
Grand Ayatollah (
Arabic:
آية الله العظمی Ayatollah al-Uzma), however when referring to one, the use of
Ayatollah is acceptable. Previously, the titles of
Allamah[108] and
Imam[109] have also been used.
[edit] Guardianship of the Jurisprudent
Traditionally
Twelver Shi'a Muslims consider
'Ali ibn Abi Talib and the subsequent further eleven Imams not only religious guides but political leaders, based on a crucial
hadith where Muhammad passes on his power to command Muslims to
Ali. Since the last Imam,
Muhammad al-Mahdi, went into "occultation" in 939 AD and is not expected back until end times, this left Shi'a without religiously sanctioned governance. In contrast, the Ismaili Imams did successfully gain political power with the shortly lived
Fatimid Empire. After the fall of the Fatimid Empire Ismaili Shi'asm started to lean towards secular thought.
The first Shi'a regime, the
Safavid dynasty in Iran, propagated the Twelver faith, made Twelver law the law of the land, and patronized Twelver scholarship. For this, Twelver ulama "crafted a new theory of government" which held that while "not truly legitimate", the Safavid monarchy would be "blessed as the most desirable form of government during the period of awaiting" for the
twelfth imam.
[110]
In general, the Shi'a adhere to one of three approaches towards the state: either full participation in government, i.e. attempting to influence policies by becoming active in politics, or passive cooperation with it, i.e. minimal participation, or else most commonly, mere toleration of it, i.e. remaining aloof from it.
[111] Historically, Zaidi and Ismaili Shi'a imams functioned as both religious and political leaders, but later after the fall of the
Fatimid Empire the Ismaili imamate became a secular institution. In general, Twelver Shi'a historically remained secular.
This changed with
Iranian Revolution where the Twelver Ayatollah
Khomeini and his supporters established a new theory of governance for the
Islamic Republic of Iran. It is based on Khomeini's theory of guardianship of the Islamic jurist as rule of the Islamic jurist, and jurists as "legatees" of Muhammad.
While
not all Twelver Shi'a accept this theory, it is uniquely Twelver and the basis of the
constitution of Iran, the largest Shi'a Muslim country, where the
Supreme Leader must be an
Islamic jurist.
[edit] Ismaili
The Ismā'īlī (
Arabic:
الإسماعيليون
al-Ismāʿīliyyūn;
Urdu: إسماعیلی
Ismāʿīlī,
Persian:
إسماعیلیان Esmāʿiliyān) branch of Islam is the second largest part of the Shī'ah community after the Twelvers. The Ismā'īlī get their name from their acceptance of
Ismā'īl ibn Ja'far as the divinely appointed spiritual successor (
Imām) to
Ja'far aṣ-Ṣādiq, wherein they differ from the Twelvers, who accept
Mūsà al-Kāzim, younger brother of Ismā'īl, as the true Imām. The Ismā'īlī and the Twelvers both accept the same initial
A'immah from the descendants of Muhammad through his daughter
Fāṭimah az-Zahra and therefore share much of their early history.
After the death or
Occultation of Imām
Muḥammad ibn Ismā'īl in the 8th century, the teachings of Ismailism further transformed into the belief system as it is known today, with an explicit concentration on the deeper,
esoteric meaning (
bāṭin) of the faith. With the eventual development of Twelverism into the more literalistic
(zahir) oriented
Akhbari and later
Uṣūlī schools of thought, Shī'ism developed in two separate directions: the metaphorical Ismā'īlī group focusing on the
mystical path and nature of God and the divine manifestation in the personage of the "Imam of the Time" as the "Face of God", while the more literalistic Twelver group focusing on divine law (
sharī'ah) and the deeds and sayings (
sunnah) of Muḥammad and his successors (the
Ahlu l-Bayt), who as A'immah were guides and a light to God.
[112]
Though there are several sub-groupings within the Ismā'īlīs, the term in today's vernacular generally refers to the
Nizārī community who are followers of the
Aga Khan and the largest group among the Ismā'īliyyah. Another famous community which falls under the Isma'il's are the
Dawoodi Bohra's whose religious leader in Syedna
Mohammed Burhanuddin, while there are many other the branches have extremely differing exterior practices, much of the spiritual theology has remained the same since the days of the faith's early Imāms. In recent centuries Ismā'īlīs have largely been an Indo-Iranian community,
[113] but they are found in
India,
Pakistan,
Syria,
Palestine,
Saudi Arabia,
[114] Yemen,
China,
[115] Jordan,
Uzbekistan,
Tajikistan,
Afghanistan,
East Africa and
South Africa, and have in recent years emigrated to
Europe,
Australia,
New Zealand, and
North America.
[116]
[edit] Ismā'īlī Imāms
After the death of Ismā'īlī ibn Ja'far, many Ismā'īlī believed the line of Imāmate ended and that one day the messianic
Mahdi, whom they believed to be
Muḥammad ibn Ismā'īl, would return and establish an age of justice. One group included the violent
Qarmatians, who had a stronghold in
Bahrain. In contrast, some Ismā'īlīs believed the Imāmate
did continue, and that the Imāms were in hiding and still communicated and taught their followers through a network of
du'āt "Missionaries".
In 909,
'Ubaydallāh al-Mahdi bil-Lāh, a claimant to the Ismā'īlī Imāmate, established the
Fatimid Empire, a political power where Ismā'īlī Imāms would rule for centuries.
Egypt became the center of an
empire that included at its peak
North Africa,
Sicily,
Palestine,
Syria, the
Red Sea coast of Africa,
Yemen and the
Hejaz. Under the Fatimids, Egypt flourished and developed an extensive trade network in both the
Mediterranean and the
Indian Ocean, which eventually determined the economic course of Egypt during the
High Middle Ages.
During this period, three lineages of Imāms formed. The first branch, known today as the
Druze, occurred with the Imām
al-Hākim bi-Amrallāh. Born in 386 AH (985), he ascended as ruler at the age of eleven and was feared for his eccentricity and believed insanity. The typical religiously tolerant Fatimid Empire saw much persecution under his reign. When in 411 AH (1021) his mule returned without him, soaked in blood, a religious group that was even forming in his lifetime broke off from mainstream Ismā'īlism and did not acknowledge his successor. Later to be known as the Druze, they believe al-Hākim to be the incarnation of God and the prophecized Mahdi, who would one day return and bring justice to the world.
[117] The faith further split from Ismā'īlism as it developed very unusual doctrines which often classes it separately from both Ismā'īliyyah and Islam.
The second split occurred following the death of
Ma'ad al-Mustansir Billah in 487 AH (1094). His rule was the longest of any Caliph in any Islamic empires. Upon his passing away his sons, the older
Nizār and the younger
al-Musta'lī fought for political and spiritual control of the dynasty. Nizār was defeated and jailed, but according to Nizāri tradition, his son to escaped to
Alamut where the
Iranian Ismā'īlī had accepted his claim.
[118] From here on, the
Nizari Ismaili community has continued with a present, living Imam.
The
Musta'lī line split again between the
Taiyabi(
Dawoodi Bohra is main exist) and the Ḥāfizī, the former claiming that the 21st Imām Tayyib (son of
al-Amīr) and the Imāms following him went into a period of anonymity (
Dawr-e-Satr) and appointed a
Dā'ī al-Muṭlaq to guide the community, in a similar manner as the Ismā'īlī had lived after the death of Muḥammad ibn Ismā'īl. The latter(Hafizi) claimed that the ruling Fatimid Caliph was the Imām, and they died out with the fall of the Fatimid Empire.
[edit] The Pillars of the Ismā'īlī
The Ismā'īlī
Seven Pillars of Islam, including the Nizārī, Druze and Bohra (Musta'lī) have two doctrines that are not included in the
Five Pillars of Islam:
Walayah and
Jihad. This would raise the total to eight, but the Bohra do not include shahādah, lowering it to six. Including the belief in
Tawhīd and witness of Muhammad's status as the last and final Prophet and Messenger of God, the term shahādah also initiates the pillar of
Walayah through the concept of
Imāmah . The shahādah is a prominent part of the Ismā'īlī traditions, with the added inclusion of
'Alīyun Amīru 'l-Mu'minīna walīyu 'l-Lāhi Arabic:
علي ولي الله "'Alī, the Master of the Believers, is the
walī of God", at the end of the standard shahādah as recited by the rest of the Shia Muslim Ummah.
[119]
- Walayah (Guardianship)
- Shia Shahadah (Shia's Profession of Faith adding references to Ali to differ from Islam's standard Shahadah as testified by the majority of Muslims)
- Salah (Prayer)
- Zakah (Charity)
- Sawm (Fasting)
- Hajj (Pilgrimage)
- Jihad (Struggle)
In Islam, the term 'aql was heavily elucidated by early Shī'ah thinkers; it came to replace and expand the pre-Islamic concept of
ḥilm (
Arabic:
حلم) "serene justice and self-control, dignity" in opposition to the negative notions of savagery (
jahl) and stupidity (
safah).
[120]
The "possessor of 'aql", or
al-'āqīl (plural
al-'uqqāl) realises a deep connection with God. Imam
Ja'far aṣ-Ṣādiq described this connection as a realization that God loves some (over others), that God's is the Truth and that only
'ilm "knowledge of the Sacred" and its development can help humanity fulfill its potential.
His son, Imām
Mūsá al-Kāżim (died 799), expanded this exegesis by defining 'aql as the "faculty for apprehending the divine, a faculty of metaphysical perception, a light in the heart, through which one can discern and recognize signs from God."
[120] He further noted that where the A'immah (Imāms) are the
ḥujjatu ż-żāhirah "External proof [of God]", 'aql is the
ḥujjatu l-bāṭinah "secret proof".
[120]
While in early Islam, 'aql was opposed to
jahl "savagery", the expansion of the concept meant it was now opposed to
safah "[deliberate] stupidity" and
junūn "lack of sense, indulgence". Under the influence of
Mu'tazilī thought, 'aql came to mean "dialectical reasoning".
[120]
[edit] Contemporary leadership
For Nizārīs, there has been less of a scholarly institution because of the existence of a present Imām. The Imām of the Age defines the jurisprudence, and may differ with Imāms previous to him because of different times and circumstances.
For
Nizari Ismailis the Imam is His Highness Karim al-Husayni
Aga Khan IV. The Nizari line of Imams has continued to this day as an unending line.
Divine leadership has continued in the Bohra branch through the institution of the "Unrestricted Missionary". According to Bohra tradition, before the last Imām,
Ṭayyib Abi l-Qāṣim, went into seclusion, his father, the 20th Imām
Mansur al-Amir Bi-Ahkamillah had instructed Queen
Al-Hurra Al-Malika in
Yemen to appoint a vicegerent after the seclusion – the
Unrestricted Missionary, who as the Imām's vicegerent has full authority to govern the community in all matters both spiritual and temporal while the lineage of Musta'ali-Tayyibi Imams remain in seclusion (
Dawr-e-Satr). The three branches of the Musta'lī, the
Alavi Bohra,
Sulaimani Bohra and
Dawoodi Bohra, differ on who the current Unrestricted Missionary is.
Because the
Nizaris still have a present, living Imam, there is no unrestricted missionary and authority resides in the Imam to guide the people in both spiritual and material matters.
[edit] Zaidiyya
Zaidiyya,
Zaidism or
Zaydism (Arabic: الزيدية
az-zaydiyya, adjective form
Zaidi or
Zaydi) is a
Shī'a madhhab (sect, school) named after the
Imām Zayd ibn ʻAlī. Followers of the Zaidi fiqh are called Zaidis (or occasionally,
Fivers by Sunnis). However, there is also a group called the Zaidi
Wasītīs who are Twelvers (see below). Zaidis constitute about 40–45% of the population in
Yemen[121]
[edit] Zaidi Imāms
The Zaidis,
Twelvers and
Ismailis recognize the same first four Imams, however, the Zaidis recognise
Zayd ibn Ali — not his brother
Muhammad al-Baqir — as the "Fifth Imām". After Zayd ibn Ali, the Zaidi recognize other descendants of Hasan ibn Ali or Husayn ibn Ali to be Imams. Other well known Zaidi imams in history were Yahya ibn Zayd, Muhammad al Nafs az-Zakiyah and Ibrahim ibn Abdullah.
In matters of law or
fiqh, the Zaidis follow
Zaydi school of
Shi'i Islamic jurisprudence.
[122]
The
Zaydi school of
Shi'i Islamic jurisprudence is based on Zaid ibn Ali's teachings, which are documented in his book
Majmu Al Fiqh (in
Arabic: مجموع الفِقه).
[edit] Theology
In matters of theology, the Zaidis are close to the
Mu'tazili school, but they are not Mu'tazilite, since there are a few issues between both schools, most notably the Zaidi doctrine of the imamate
imamah, that are rejected by Mu'tazilites. Of the Shias, Zaydis are the most similar to
Sunnis and Zaydis utilize the jurisprudential tradition of Abu Hanifa.
[123] Because Zaydis share similar doctrines and jurisprudential opinions with Sunnis, Zaydis are even described by some analysts as the
fifth school of Sunni Islam.
[124]
[edit] Unique Beliefs
Zaidi beliefs are moderate compared to other Shi'i sects. The Zaidis do not believe in the infallibility of the Imams, nor that the Imams receive divine guidance. Zaidis also do not believe that the Imamate must pass from father to son, but believe it can be held by any
Sayyid descended from either
Hasan ibn Ali or
Husayn ibn Ali.
Zaidis believe Zayd was the rightful successor to the Imāmate because he led a rebellion against the
Umayyads, whom he believed were tyrannical and corrupt. Muhammad al-Baqir did not engage in political action and the followers of Zayd believed that a true Imām must fight against corrupt rulers.
[citation needed]
Zaidis also reject the notion of
Occultation (
ghayba) of the "Hidden Imām". Like the
Ismā'īlīs, they believe in a living Imām (or Imāms).
[citation needed] Great Sunni Imam
Abu Hanifa has given
fatwa in favor of Imam Zaid in his rebellion against Ummayid ruler of his time.
[edit] Zaidi States
The first Zaidi state was established in
Daylaman and
Tabaristan (northern
Iran) in 864 CE by the
Alavids;
[125] it lasted until the death of its leader at the hand of the Samanids in 928 CE Roughly forty years later the state was revived in
Gilan (north-western Iran) and survived under Hasanid leaders until 1126 CE After which from the 12th–13th centuries, the Zaidis of
Daylaman,
Gilan and
Tabaristan then acknowledge the Zaidi
Imams of Yemen or rival Zaidi Imams within
Iran.
[126]
The
Buyids were Zaidi
[127] as well as the
Ukhaidhirite rulers of
al-Yamama in the 9th and 10th centuries.
[128]
The leader of the Zaidi community took the title of Caliph. As such, the ruler of Yemen was known as the Caliph, al-Hadi Yahya bin al-Hussain bin al-Qasim ar-Rassi
Rassids (a descendant of Imam
al-Hasan) who, at Sa'da, in 893-7 CE, founded the Zaidi Imamate and this system continued until the middle of the 20th century, until the revolution of 1962 CE that deposed the Zaidi Imam. The founding Zaidism of Yemen was of the Jarudiyya group, however with the increasing interaction with Hanafi and Shafi'i Sunni Islam, there was a shift from the Jarudiyya group to the Sulaimaniyya, Tabiriyya, Butriyya or Salihiyya groups.
[129]
Zaidis form the dominant religious group in
Yemen. Currently, they constitute about 40–45% of the population in Yemen. Ja'faris and Isma'ilis are 2–5%.
[3],
[130] In Saudi Arabia, it is estimated that there are over 1 million Zaidis (primarily in the western provinces).
[citation needed]
Currently the most prominent Zaidi movement is
Hussein al-Houthi's
Shabab Al Mu'mineen who have been the subject of an ongoing campaign against them by the Yemeni Government in which the Army has lost 743 men and thousands of innocent civilians have been killed or displaced by government forces causing a grave humanitarian crisis in north Yemen.
Shia Population of the Middle East[131]
[edit] See also
- ^ a b c d The New Encyclopædia Britannica, Jacob E. Safra, Chairman of the Board, 15th Edition, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1998, ISBN 0-85229-6330, Vol 10, p. 738
- ^ "The Term "Shia" in Quran and Hadith". Al-islam.org. http://www.al-islam.org/encyclopedia/chapter1b/13.html. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
- ^ "Central Intelligence Agency". Cia.gov. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
- ^ "Encyclopedia - Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. http://www.britannica.com/bps/search?query=Sh%C4%AB%CA%BFite&blacklist=540503. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
- ^ "Major Branches of Religions". Adherents.com. http://www.adherents.com/adh_branches.html#Islam. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
- ^ a b "Esposito, John. "What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam." Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN 978-0-19-515713-0. p. 40
- ^ "From the article on Shii Islam in Oxford Islamic Studies Online". Oxfordislamicstudies.com. http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e2189?_hi=26&_pos=238. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
- ^ a b Corbin (1993), pp. 45–51
- ^ a b "The Complete Idiot's Guide to World Religions," Brandon Toropov, Father Luke Buckles, Alpha; 3rd edition, 2004, ISBN 978-1-59257-222-9, p. 135
- ^ Tabatabaei (1979), pp. 41–44
- ^ Revolutions and revolutionary movements (1996) James DeFronzo
- ^ Nasr, Shi'ite Islam, preface, p. 10
- ^ Motahhari, Perfect man, Chapter 1
- ^ How do Sunnis and Shi'as differ theologically? Last updated 2009-08-19, BBC religions
- ^ Momen, Moojan, Introduction to Shi'i Islam, Yale University Press, 1985, p.174.
- ^ Islamic Beliefs, Practices, and Cultures retrieved 24 April 2011
- ^ "Esposito, John. "What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam" Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN 978-0-19-515713-0. p.40
- ^ a b c d e f g h "Shīʿite". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2010. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/540503/Shiite. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
- ^ Tabataba'i (1979), p. 76
- ^ "Esposito, John. "What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam" Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN 978-0-19-515713-0. p. 45.
- ^ "Esposito, John. "What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam" Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN 978-0-19-515713-0. p. 45
- ^ "Learn to do Shia Prayer - Islamic Prayer - Shia Salat". Revertmuslims.com. http://www.revertmuslims.com/sala.html. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
- ^ "Joining Prayers and Other related Issues". Al-islam.org. http://www.al-islam.org/encyclopedia/chapter7/5.html. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
- ^ "Druze and Islam". American Druze.com. http://americandruze.com/Druze%20And%20Islam.html. Retrieved 2010-08-12.
- ^ "Ijtihad in Islam". AlQazwini.org. http://alqazwini.org/qazwini_org/articles/by_articles/ijtihad.htm. Retrieved 2010-08-12.
- ^ "Shi'ite Islam," by Allamah Sayyid Muhammad Husayn Tabataba'i, translated by Sayyid Husayn Nasr, State University of New York Press, 1975, p. 24
- ^ Dakake (2008), pp. 1 and 2
- ^ In his "Mutanabbi devant le siècle ismaëlien de l'Islam", in Mém. de l'Inst Français de Damas, 1935, p.
- ^ "Comparison of Shias and Sunnis". Religionfacts.com. http://www.religionfacts.com/islam/comparison_charts/islamic_sects.htm. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
- ^ a b c d e f Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions, Wendy Doniger, Consulting Editor, Merriam-Webster, Incorporated, Springfield, MA 1999, ISBN 0-87779-044-2, LoC: BL31.M47 1999, p. 525
- ^ "Esposito, John. "What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam" Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN 978-0-19-515713-0. p. 46
- ^ The New Encyclopædia Britannica, Jacob E. Safra, Chairman of the Board, 15th Edition, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1998, ISBN 0-85229-6330, Vol 22, p. 17.
- ^ "Event of Ghadir Khumm". Al-islam.org. http://www.al-islam.org/ghadir/incident.htm. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
- ^ The Last Sermon of Muhammad by Shia Accounts http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/ The_Last_Sermon_of_Muhammad_by_Shia_Accounts/
- ^ The New Encyclopædia Britannica, Jacob E. Safra, Chairnman of the Board, 15th Edition, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1998, ISBN 0-85229-6330, Vol 10, p. 738
- ^ The New Encyclopædia Britannica, Jacob E. Safra, Chairman of the Board, 15th Edition, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1998, ISBN 0-85229-6330, Vol 10, p. tid738
- ^ "Esposito, John. "What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam" Oxfoy uprd University Press, 2002. ISBN 978-0-19-515713-0. p. 46
- ^ "Encyclopedia of the Middle East". Mideastweb.org. 2008-11-14. http://www.mideastweb.org/Middle-East-Encyclopedia/shahada.htm. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
- ^ Designation of Ali as successor to Muhammad www.al-islam.org
- ^ Discovering Islam: making sense of Muslim history and society (2002) Akbar S. Ahmed
- ^ Nasr (1979), p.10
- ^ a b Momen (1985), p. 174
- ^ Nasr (1979), p. 15
- ^ a b Gleave, Robert. "Imamate". Encyclopaedia of Islam and the Muslim world; vol.1. MacMillan. ISBN 0-02-865604-0.
- ^ KALMA, Encyclopaedia of Ismailism, by Mumtaz Ali Tajddin. http://www.ismaili.net/heritage/taxonomy/term/2098/
- ^ Dabashi, Theology of Discontent, p.463
- ^ Momen (1985), p. 155
- ^ Corbin (1993), pp. 48 and 49
- ^ Dabashi (2006), p. 463
- ^ Corbin (1993), p. 48
- ^ http://www.islamtomorrow.com/wasila/1.asp Sunni Hanbali Position from Islam Tomorrow
- ^ "Tawassul through the awliyah". Islamic.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk. http://www.islamic.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/Fiqh/tawassul.htm. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
- ^ See:
- ^ Nasr, Shi'ite Islam, preface, pp. 9 and 10
- ^ Momen, Moojan, An Introduction to Shi'i Islam, Yale University Press, 1985, p.123
- ^ Momen, Moojan, An Introduction to Shi'i Islam, Yale University Press, 1985, p.191, 130
- ^ Nasr, Vali (2006). The Shia revival : how conflicts within Islam will shape the future. New York: Norton. p. 69. ISBN 9780393062113
- ^ Momen, Moojan (1985). An introduction to Shi'i Islam : the history and doctrines of Twelver Shi'ism. Oxford: G. Ronald. p. 127. ISBN 0853982015
- ^ Momen, Moojan (1985). An introduction to Shi'i Islam : the history and doctrines of Twelver Shi'ism. Oxford: G. Ronald. p. 222. ISBN 0853982015
- ^ Momen, Moojan (1985). An introduction to Shi'i Islam : the history and doctrines of Twelver Shi'ism. Oxford: G. Ronald. p. 204. ISBN 0853982015
- ^ Momen, Moojan (1985). An introduction to Shi'i Islam : the history and doctrines of Twelver Shi'ism. Oxford: G. Ronald. p. 115. ISBN 0853982015
- ^ Momen, Moojan (1985). An introduction to Shi'i Islam : the history and doctrines of Twelver Shi'ism. Oxford: G. Ronald. p. 116. ISBN 0853982015
- ^ "Shīʿite". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2010. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/540503/Shiite. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population". Pew Research Center. October 7, 2009. http://pewforum.org/Muslim/Mapping-the-Global-Muslim-Population%286%29.aspx. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
- ^ a b c d e f g Miller, Tracy, ed (10 2009) (PDF). Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population. Pew Research Center. http://pewforum.org/newassets/images/reports/Muslimpopulation/Muslimpopulation.pdf. Retrieved 2009-10-08.
- ^ "Religions". CIA. The World Factbook. 2010. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
- ^ "The Shia Revival: How Conflicts within Islam Will Shape the Future". Vali Nasr, Joanne J. Myers. October 18, 2006. http://www.cceia.org/resources/transcripts/5400.html. Retrieved 2010-08-24.
- ^ "The Revival of Shia Islam (Archived)". Vali Nasr. Washington, D.C.: The Pew Forum on religion & public life. July 24, 2006. Archived from the original on 2008-03-06. http://web.archive.org/web/20080306073746/http://pewforum.org/events/index.php?EventID=R120. Retrieved 2010-08-27. "The Shiites – just as an introduction – are about 10 to 15 percent of the Muslim population worldwide, which makes them about 130 million to 190 million people."
- ^ "Quick guide: Sunnis and Shias". BBC News. 2006-12-11. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/6213248.stm.
- ^ Atlas of the Middle East (Second ed.). Washington D.C: National Geographic. 2008 (published 15 April). pp. 80–81. ISBN 9781426202216
- ^ "New York Times: Religious Distribution in Lebanon". Nytimes.com. 2006-07-19. http://www.nytimes.com/packages/khtml/2006/07/19/world/middleeast/20060719_MIDEAST_GRAPHIC.html. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
- ^ "How many Shia?". Islamicweb.com. http://islamicweb.com/beliefs/cults/shia_population.htm. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
- ^ a b "The actual percentage of Kuwaiti Shiites is 40 percent". ArabTimesOnline. http://www.arabtimesonline.com/NewsDetails/tabid/96/smid/414/ArticleID/144073/reftab/69/Default.aspx. Retrieved 2010-07-19.
- ^ Shankland, David (2003). The Alevis in Turkey: The Emergence of a Secular Islamic Tradition. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-7007-1606-8. http://books.google.com/?id=lFFRzTqLp6AC&pg=PP1&lpg=PP1&dq=Religion+in+Turkey.
- ^ a b "Shia women too can initiate divorce". Library of Congress Country Studies on Afghanistan. August 2008. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Afghanistan.pdf. Retrieved 2010-08-27. "Religion: Virtually the entire population is Muslim. Between 80 and 85 percent of Muslims are Sunni and 15 to 19 percent, Shia."
- ^ "Afghanistan". Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). The World Factbook on Afghanistan. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html?countryName=Afghanistan&countryCode=af®ionCode=sas&#af. Retrieved 2010-08-27. "Religions: Sunni Muslim 80%, Shia Muslim 19%, other 1%"
- ^ al-Qudaihi, Anees. "Saudi Arabia's Shia press for rights". BBC Arabic Service. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7959531.stm. Retrieved 24 March 2009.
- ^ "Discrimination towards Shia in Saudi Arabia". Wsws.org. 2001-10-08. http://www.wsws.org/articles/2001/oct2001/saud-o08.shtml. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
- ^ "CIA - The World Factbook". Cia.gov. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/pk.html. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
- ^ "Violence Against Pakistani Shias Continues Unnoticed | International News". Islamic Insights. http://www.islamicinsights.com/news/international-news/violence-against-pakistani-shias-continues-unnoticed.html. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
- ^ http://www.presstv.ir/detail.aspx?id=86937§ionid=351020401
- ^ "Shia women too can initiate divorce". The Times of India. November 6, 2006. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/lucknow/Shia-women-too-can-initiate-divorce/articleshow/334804.cms. Retrieved 2010-06-21.
- ^ "Talaq rights proposed for Shia women". Daily News and Analysis, www.dnaindia.com. 5 November 2006. http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report_talaq-rights-proposed-for-shia-women_1062327. Retrieved 2010-06-21.
- ^ Nigeria: 'No Settlement With Iran Yet', Paul Ohia, allAfrica - This Day, 16 November 2010
- ^ Top 15 Countries with Highest Proportion of Shiites in the Population, 7 July 1999
- ^ "The Origins of the Sunni/Shia split in Islam". Islamfortoday.com. http://www.islamfortoday.com/shia.htm. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
- ^ Nasr,Vali (2006). The Shia Revival: How Conflicts Within Islam Will Shape the Future. W.W. Norton & Company Inc. ISBN 978-0-393-06211-3 p. 52-53
- ^ (Ya'qubi; vol.lll, pp. 91–96, and Tarikh Abul Fida', vol. I, p. 212.)
- ^ The Psychologies in Religion, E. Thomas Dowd and Stevan Lars Nielsen, chapter 14. Books.google.com. http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=PcKBtc8bymoC&oi=fnd&pg=PA237&dq=shia+persecution&ots=Cpp7WVSE_U&sig=ZVP6c1ibBP6xL-ZtzCIXJ-hajrs. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
- ^ "Basra handover completed". Inthenews.co.uk. http://www.inthenews.co.uk/news/autocodes/countries/iraq/basra-handover-completed-$1179488.htm. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
- ^ Maddox, Bronwen (2006-12-30). "Hanging will bring only more bloodshed". The Times (London). http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,30809-2523714,00.html. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
- ^ "Al-Ahram Weekly | Region | Shi'ism or schism". Weekly.ahram.org.eg. 2004-03-17. http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2004/681/re2.htm. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
- ^ The Shia, Ted Thornton, NMH, Northfield Mount Hermon[dead link]
- ^ Malaysia bans Shias for promoting their faith http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2011%5C03%5C10%5Cstory_10-3-2011_pg4_2
- ^ "BBC NEWS, Iraqi Shia pilgrims mark holy day". BBC News. 2008-01-19. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7197473.stm. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
- ^ Walker, Martin. "The Revenge of the Shia". Wilsoncenter.org. http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=wq.essay&essay_id=202986. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
- ^ "Religious Minorities in the Muslim World". Iml.jou.ufl.edu. 2005-04-01. http://iml.jou.ufl.edu/projects/Spring05/Shullick/twelver.htm. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
- ^ "A History of Islam from a Baha'i Perspective". Bahai-library.com. http://bahai-library.com/stockman_history_islam. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
- ^ Česky. "Ismailism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia". En.wikipedia.org. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ismaili. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
- ^ a b "A" (PDF). http://merln.ndu.edu/archive/icg/shiitequestion.pdf. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
- ^ Nasr (1979), p. 10
- ^ Momen (1987), p. 180
- ^ Momem (1987), p. 178
- ^ "Pillars of Islam". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online.
- ^ Momem (1987), p. 176
- ^ "sihmu 'l-Imam". Al-islam.org. 1990-09-21. http://www.al-islam.org/beliefs/practices/khums.html#5.d. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
- ^ The World Federation sends 50% of Khums to Ayatollah Al Uzma Syed Ali Husein Sistani[dead link]
- ^ such as Allameh Tabatabaei, Allameh Majlesi, Allameh Hilli
- ^ such as Imam Khomeini, Imam Rohani imamrohani.com, Imam Shirazi imamshirazi.shirazi.ir and Imam Sadr imamsadr.net
- ^ Nasr, Vali, The Shia Revival, Norton, (2006), pp. 74–75
- ^ Momen, An Introduction to Shi'i Islam, (1985), p. 193
- ^ "Shaykh Ahmad al-Ahsa'i". http://www-personal.umich.edu/~jrcole/ahsai1.htm. Retrieved 2007-04-25.
- ^ Nasr, Vali, The Shia Revival, Norton, (2006), p. 76
- ^ "Congressional Human Rights Caucus Testimony – NAJRAN, The Untold Story". http://lantos.house.gov/HoR/CA12/Human+Rights+Caucus/Briefing+Testimonies/107/TESTIMONY+OF+ALI+H.+ALYAMI.htm. Retrieved 2007-01-08.
- ^ "News Summary: China; Latvia". http://jmm.aaa.net.au/articles/11253.htm. Retrieved 2007-06-01.
- ^ Daftary, Farhad (1998). A Short History of the Ismailis. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 1–4. ISBN 0-7486-0687-4.
- ^ "al-Hakim bi Amr Allah: Fatimid Caliph of Egypt". http://baheyeldin.com/history/al-hakim-bi-amr-allah-fatimid-caliph-of-egypt.html. Retrieved 2007-04-24.
- ^ Daftary, Farhad (1998). A Short History of the Ismailis. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 106–108. ISBN 0-7486-0687-4.
- ^ Article on 'Bohras' in OUP Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World, John Esposito (ed), 1995, retrieved from [1]
- ^ a b c d Moezzi, Mohammad Ali Amir (1994). The Divine Guide in Early Shiʻism: The Sources of Esotericism in Islam. Albany: State University of New York Press. p. 6. ISBN 079142121X
- ^ http://www.yemenincanada.ca/map.php : http://www.library.uu.nl/wesp/populstat/Asia/yemeng.htm
- ^ "The Three Points of The Amman Message V.1". Ammanmessage.com. http://ammanmessage.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=91&Itemid=74. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
- ^ Sunni-Shi’i Schism: Less There Than Meets the Eye 1991 Page 24
- ^ Yemen: The Bradt Travel Guide By Daniel McLaughlin
- ^ Article by Sayyid 'Ali ibn 'Ali Al-Zaidi, A short History of the Yemenite Shi'ites (2005) Referencing: Iranian Influence on Moslem Literature
- ^ Article by Sayyid 'Ali ibn 'Ali Al-Zaidi, A short History of the Yemenite Shi'ites (2005) Referencing: Encyclopedia Iranica
- ^ Walker, Paul Ernest (1999). written at London ; New York. Hamid Al-Din Al-Kirmani: Ismaili Thought in the Age of Al-Hakim. Ismaili Heritage Series. 3. I.B. Tauris in association with the Institute of Ismaili Studies.. p. 13. ISBN 1860643213
- ^ Madelung, W. "al-Uk̲h̲ayḍir." Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2007. Brill Online. 07 December 2007 [2]
- ^ Article by Sayyid 'Ali ibn 'Ali Al-Zaidi, A short History of the Yemenite Shi'ites (2005)
- ^ "Universiteit Utrecht Universiteitsbibliotheek". Library.uu.nl. http://www.library.uu.nl/wesp/populstat/Asia/yemeng.htm. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
- ^ The Gulf 2000 Project SIPA Columbia University
[edit] References
- Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc..
- Encyclopædia Iranica. Center for Iranian Studies, Columbia University. ISBN 1-56859-050-4.
- Martin, Richard C.. Encyclopaedia of Islam and the Muslim world; vol.1. MacMillan. ISBN 0-02-865604-0.
- Corbin, Henry (1993 (original French 1964)). History of Islamic Philosophy, Translated by Liadain Sherrard, Philip Sherrard. London; Kegan Paul International in association with Islamic Publications for The Institute of Ismaili Studies. ISBN 0710304161.
- Dakake, Maria Massi (2008). The Charismatic Community: Shi'ite Identity in Early Islam. SUNY Press. ISBN 0791470334.
- Holt, P. M.; Bernard Lewis (1977a). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521291364.
- Lapidus, Ira (2002). A History of Islamic Societies (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521779333.
- Momen, Moojan (1985). An Introduction to Shi'i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelve. Yale University Press. ISBN 0300035314.
- Sachedina, Abdulaziz Abdulhussein (1988). The Just Ruler (al-sultān Al-ʻādil) in Shīʻite Islam: The Comprehensive Authority of the Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudence. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0195119150.
- Tabatabaei, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn; Seyyed Hossein Nasr (translator) (1979). Shi'ite Islam. Suny press. ISBN 0-87395-272-3.
The Muharram, 1795: Asaf al-Daula, Nawab of Oudh, listening at night to the maulvi reading from the scriptures during Muharram, c.1795.Lucknow is known as a seat of Shi'ism and the epitome of Shia culture in India. Muharram which is observed in Lucknow is famous worldwide. The processions of Muharram in Lucknow have a special significance. They were started during the reign of the Awadh Nawabs. The Majalises, processions and other rituals that are observed by the Shia community to commemorate the sacrifice of Husain are known as Azadari.
.jpg)
_procession_Barabanki_India_(Jan_2009).jpg)
_procession_Barabanki_India_(Jan_2009).jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
